All Things Polar People: Arctic and Antarctic explorers, scientists, adventurers, and other notables from the past to the present
It was exceedingly difficult deciding who to include in this section, weighing their importance within their specific profession/vocation, their individual “star power”, the story they bring to the reader, and their contribution(s) to history or science. Individuals from three groups adorn this page primarily: explorers with a goal to "claim for country" or to achieve a "polar first”, early commercial whalers and sealers, scientists, and adventurers who achieved either an interesting or historically important record. Lastly, a few individuals are included because of the uniqueness of their story. It is strongly advised if interested in a particular individual, that you pursue in depth reading (see recommendations below or The ATP Books section), both more than is presented here or even the greater detail found in Wikipedia, Britannica, or other "summary" sites. Reasons are myriad, but in large part it allows one to learn truly about the individual, both his/her becoming and flawed traits, and to see him/her as a real rather than simply explorers of mythic proportions. Both Shackleton and Scott, for all their positives, are good examples. It is particularly difficult to "draw the line" on inclusion of modern day adventurers, many of whom are doing good work fundraising or raising awareness about climate change. In some cases individuals overlap two or more categories: explorers who conducted scientific endeavors on their expeditions, or scientists who explored new lands. In all cases, information about the individual has been derived from multiple sources including various web sites and printed sources. I have tried to keep each person's byline to a few sentences only; the link provided for each individual is primarily Wikipedia. Depending on the individual, the Wikipedia link can be quite complete and fully referenced or rudimentary and lacking in citations. Other sources as well as ATP Books should be consulted for further details about a specific individual. For some individuals, I have provided a relevant book title about the person, either an autobiography, a biography or other title which illuminates an important time in the individual's life.Of both North and South pole fame-there are few individuals who have conquered both 90 degrees N AND S: below are a few of the more notables.
Roald Amundsen-Amundsen certainly ranks in the top echelons of polar explorers. Born in Borge, Norway in 1872. He got a taste of the Antarctica aboard the Belgica Expedition as first mate, taking over command when Gerlache became incapacitated with scurvy. Amundsen returned to the Antarctic, but not before completing the first sail of the Northwest passage aboard the small ship Gjøa in August of 1905. He spent the next few years honing his polar skills, before setting off for the Arctic in June of 1910. But a ruse was in order and Amundsen had planned all along to sail to the antarctic to try and reach the South pole. Read ATP-Expeditions-Gjøa and Fram and learn about ATP-Places-Amundsen's home. After Antarctic fame, Amundsen attempted to get to the North pole. After several failed attempts, he was successful in floating over the pole aboard the Norge airship in May of 1926. He was the first person to have visited both poles undisputedly.
Sir Edmund Hillary-born in Auckland, New Zealand in 1919, Hillary went on to, and is known best for his first ascent of Mount Everest, accompanied by the Sherpa Tenzing Norgay. His polar exploits are less known. They started with the ATP Expeditions-CTAE, 1955-1958, during which Hillary (in a planned supporting role) beat out Sir Vivian Fuchs to the south pole; he was the first person to hit 90 N, S, and the top of the world: Everest. He did have some assistance reaching the North pole as he arrived there by airplane in 1985, landing on the ice accompanied by Neil Armstrong. Nonetheless, he was the first to have completed the Three Poles Challenge and the second to reach both poles, behind only Amundsen.
Erling Kagge-born in Norway in 1963, Mr. Kagge is a modern day success story. Besides excelling in myriad professional endeavors, he is the first to have completed the Three Poles Challenge on foot, in 1994.
Tina Sjögren-born in Prague in 1959, Ms Sjögren was the woman first to accomplish the Three Poles Challenge, completing the last leg, the North pole. in May of 2002.
Børge Ousland-Norwegian, born, in 1962, Mr. Ousland reached the North pole unsupported with Mr. Kagge, 1990. He was the first to trek across Antarctica solo, 1996-1997.
Sir Ranulph Fiennes-English through and through, born in Windsor in 1944 and an Etonite, Sir Fiennes began leading expeditions after a significant stint in the British military. Another conqueror of the Three Poles Challenge, Sir Fiennes is the oldest British subject to have climbed Everest, in 2009. In addition, he and colleagues visited the two poles in a unique way. The idea, conceived by his wife and expedition organizer Ginny Fiennes (first female to receive the queen’s Polar Medal), was to circumnavigate the globe along the prime meridian, crossing both poles using only surface transport. Fiennes was also the first to cross the antarctic continent unsupported, in 1992.
Robert Swan—born in 1956, walked hauling sledges 1100 miles to the South pole with two colleagues unassisted, reaching 90 S on January 11th, 1986. Again unassisted, he and an eclectic group from multiple countries, walked across the ice to the North pole, arriving on May 14th, 1989. They almost drowned due to melting polar ice.
Ann Bancroft-born in 1955 in Minnesota, Ms. Bancroft reached the North pole as part of the Will Steger expedition in 1986 and was first female to the South pole in 1992. She is the first women to have skied across Antarctica, in 2001. She has been a tireless advocate of the outdoors, “all things water”, and the effects of climate change and global warming.
Minorities and Indigenous
Matthew Henson-another example of the “black man” behind the success of the white man, Matthew Henson joined Peary for 22 years of Arctic exploration. After a chance encounter in a Washington D.C. department store, this sharecropper’s son followed Peary first to Nicaragua, then up north all the way to his final push for the North pole in 1909. If Peary and team did actually make it to the North pole, it was likely Henson who arrived first as Peary was being pulled on a sledge at that point. Henson was largely responsible for the planning, logistics, and day to day operations of Peary’s expeditions. He was the prime communicator with the indigenous peoples involved in the expeditions directly or otherwise. He was finally recognized for his contributions by the Explorers Club in 1937 and awarded the Hubbard Medal by the National Geographic Society in 2000. For another fascinating story of an African-American behind the scenes (though having nothing to do with polar exploration) learn about Vivian Thomas.
Henson, Matthew. A Negro Explorer At The North Pole: The Autobiography Of Matthew Henson. Montpelier VT: Invisible Cities Press, 2001; multiple editions available
Indigenous peoples-it is impossible to know, let a lone recognize, the myriad invaluable contributions made by indigenous peoples to the field of Arctic exploration and science over the past three centuries. Whether participating in an expedition, aiding explorers in times of need, or simply sharing their knowledge of “polar ways” or geography, their contributions have been immeasurable. See the Indigenous Regions page for more information.
Prem Gill -someone to keep an eye on, he seems bent on improving minority/ethnic representation in the field of polar research and exploration
Women in the Arctic and Antarctic-as 90 N and S have historically been a man’s world, it is important to call out and recognize the contributions of women at both locations, both scientifically and as record setters.
Women in Antarctica-a collection of the most famous women explorers, scientists, and record setters
Liv Arensen-Norwegian born, Ms Arensen is credited with the first female, solo, unsupported trip to the south pole in 1994. Along with Ann Bancroft, she skied across Antarctica in 2001.
Ann Bancroft-see above
Tina Sjögren-see above
Australia
Sir Douglas Mawson-an Australian geologist, Mawson was part of the “heroic age” of exploration. He was an early transplant to Australia, shortly after his birth in Yorkshire, England in 1882. After returning from Shackleton’s Nimrod expedition, during which he climbed Mt. Erebus, Mawson was hooked on Antarctica. Fate, and disagreements with Scott, kept him off the Terra Nova expedition, and possibly saved his life. Instead, he mounted a scientific expedition of his own: the Australasian Expedition. Mawson almost lost his life during one of the expedition’s glacier surveying journeys to the far east of Cape Dennison in 1912-1913; first Ninnis was lost to a crevasse, along with most of their food rations, tent, and half their dogs. Forced to shoot and eat the remaining dogs to survive, both Mawson and Mertz are thought to have developed hypervitaminosis A from eating the dogs’ livers. Ironically, in 1912, the same year that Mawson, Metz, and Ninnis began their fateful journey from Cape Denison, the Polish biochemist Casimir Funk published an article in which he was the first to postulate the existence of “vitamines” (at least four, name later changed to vitamins). Mertz developed delirium, then succumbed from the malady, requiring Mawson to continue on alone. His solo run began on January 9th and continued for almost a month during which he covered the roughly 100 miles to winter quarters. Poor weather, inadequate shelter, foot maladies, malnutrition with significant caloric deprivation, and finally a fall into a crevasse requiring self-rescue conspired against Mawson’s progress; sometimes he could make only five miles a day. Miraculously, he made it back to camp, to find that the Aurora had just departed; a gale prevented its return. Mawson and a few colleagues were forced to spend another winter. Mawson returned to Australia a hero. He was knighted in 1914. The RGS awarded him the Founder’s medal in 1915 and he received the David Livingstone Centenary Medal from the American Geographical Society in 1916. Back home, Mawson made major contributions to Australian geology. He led the joint British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition in 1929–31. Additional medals included the Bigsby in 1919 and Clarke in 1936. He died at the age of 76 in Brighton, South Australia.
Bickel, Lennard. Mawson’s Will, The Greatest Survival Story Ever Written. New York: Stein and Day, 1977.
Belgium
Adrien de Gerlache-Gerlache was born and died in Belgium, in 1866 and 1934 respectively. His interest in the sea and adventure was manifest by multiple early voyages, stints in the Belgian Navy, culminating in him obtaining his Captain’s license at the age of 28. Gerlache attempted to become involved in Belgian African explorations, but he was turned down; undaunted, he decided to mount an Antarctic expedition, and proposed it to the RGS in 1894. Funding was obtained ultimately from the Belgian government. The voyage was met with demise, first grinding to a halt after the Belgica became entrapped in ice. Gerlache and Belgica’s captain fell ill from scurvy; convinced that they would die they executed wills. Finally Gerlache relented to the consumption of seal and penguin, recommended by Frederick Cook, and recovered. The Belgica was eventually freed, and Gerlache and crew returned home to a hero’s welcome. He and his crew were awarded the Order of Leopold. Gerlache remained committed to polar explorations, participating in expeditions to the Greenland, Kara, and Barents Seas in the Arctic region. His legacy: a lunar crater named in his honor any many geographical features in the Antarctic that bear his name. Perhaps his greatest legacy is the subsequent two generations of Gerlache polar explorers, a result of his second marriage and son Gaston.
Canada
Vilhjalmur Stefansson-Canadian born though Icelandic in heritage, Stefansson’s family moved to the US when he was one year old, in 1880. After attending the University of North Dakota, he followed on at Harvard as a graduate student in the the Divinity School. His interests in the Arctic, anthropology and ethnology stem from that period and resulted in him living and studying among the Inuit’s in his early years during two expeditions, 1906-08 and 1908-12. He led the Canadian Arctic Expedition which became mired in controversy due to Stefansson’s abandonment of his ship, leaving Captain Bartlett and crew to fend for themselves. He received further discredit for a failed business venture on Wrangel Island, leading to the death of several colleagues. Nonetheless, he is credited with discovering several new islands and contributing to the mapping of the Canadian archipelago. As interesting as Stefansson’s actual discoveries were, his prolific writings on indigenous peoples, the “Copper Eskimo”, tireless promotion of the Arctic regions, dream and work an Encyclopedia Arctica, and influence on the founding of the US Army’s Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory in Hanover NH are the accomplishments for which he is best known and will be remembered.. Equally important was his promotion of woman, achieving an amendment to the all male Explorer’s Club honoring women in 1938; he served as club president twice. Stefansson was awarded the Founder’s Medal by the RGS in 1921. His voluminous collection of manuscripts, photographs, and other material now reside at Dartmouth College in the The Stefansson Collection on Polar Exploration. Stefansson died in 1962 and is buried in Hanover NH.
Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. Discovery; the autobiography of Vilhjalmur Stefansson. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
England
Sir Francis Drake-most of Drake’s 55 year history is not known for polar explorations. However, during his circumnavigation of the globe, 1577-1580, Drake did sail through Magellan’s Strait, renaming his ship Pelican the Golden Hind. It is not clear how far south he reached and certainly did not enter the Drake passage, which bears his name. A replica of the Golden Hind can be viewed in London.
Sir James Cook-born in Yorkshire in 1728 to auspicious beginnings, Cook captained three voyages around the world. In contrast to Drake, Cook is credited with polar endeavors. His second voyage, sailing in HMS Resolution, twice crossed the Antarctic Circle, during his quest for Terra Australis. His third voyage, an attempt to discover the Northwest Passage met with his untimely death in Hawaii at the young age of 50, in 1779. Cook was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1776 and was bestowed many other honors including knighthood. Cook’s circumglobal navigations and explorations of the Pacific have gained him one of the most notable places in English history. The James Cook Collection can be found at the Australian Museum in Sydney. Several memorials and statues honoring Cook exist throughout the world.
Sir John Ross-though Scottish born in 1777, Ross is thought of as an English explorer. Unbelievably, he joined the Royal Navy at the age of nine and served on multiple ships in many capacities, moving up in the ranks. After a stint with the Swedish Navy (seconded to them by England), he was one of the early commanders chosen by the admiralty to search for the Northwest passage, in 1818. Neither of his first two Arctic Expeditions are particularly notable, and his third took place at the age of 72, in search of Franklin at the behest of Lady Franklin. Ross met with displeasure when he suggested to Lady Franklin that her husband was likely dead; support to Ross was withdrawn. Despite his lackluster expeditions, Ross was knighted in 1833, after his return from expedition number two. France bestowed upon him the Grande Médaille d'Or des Explorations in 1834.
Sir James Clark Ross-more successful at polar exploration than his uncle, Sir James is known best for his valuable early contributions to Antarctic knowledge. Following his birth in London in 1800, Ross also joined the Royal Navy at a young age, 12, sailing both with his uncle (twice) and Sir William Parry, all to the Arctic. He is credited with first reaching the north magnetic pole on the Boothia peninsula. Following his experiences in the Arctic, Ross was granted command of the HMS Erebus and HMS Terror expedition to the Antarctic, 1839-1843. For this successful voyage he received awarded the Grande Médaille d'Or des Explorations. He was knighted in 1844. Like many others, Sir James was sent to find John Franklin in 1848, aboard the HMS Enterprise and HMS Investigator. He was able to reach only Somerset Island, and like all others was unsuccessful in the search. His many legacies include Ross Island, the Ross Ice Shelf, Mt. Erebus and Terror on Ross Island (named after his ships) and two islands bearing the same names, located in a lake in the abbey gardens of St. James the Great, Aston Abbotts. Ross and his wife are buried there in the St. James the Great churchyard.
Sir John Franklin-born in Spilsby, Lincolnshire in 1786, Franklin was the ninth of 12 children. Given his family’s status, his father being a merchant, he likely recognized his local prospects as dim. Like many others, he first sailed at the age of 12 and joined the Royal Navy at 14. He saw much action, including service at Nelson’s Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 aboard HMS Bellerophon, and the war of 1812 aboard HMS Bedford, during which he was wounded in December, 1814. Franklin got his first taste of cold water sailing on the 1818 Spitsbergen expedition along with Captain David Buchan. One year later he was tapped for the disastrous Coppermine expedition to explore the northern Canadian coastline from the Coppermine River eastwards. Over the next three years he lost over half his men to starvation. His Mackenzie River expedition of 1825 was to explore west from the mouth of the river, hopefully linking up with Frederick Beechey sailing east from the Bering Strait; again he was only partially successful. Upon return home, Franklin wedded for the second time (his first wife dying from tuberculosis), this time to Jane Griffin, in 1828. Despite the modest accomplishments of his explorations, Franklin was awarded the first Grande Médaille d'Or des Explorations, in 1829. He was knighted the same year and received other accolades. Rather than returning to sea, he was sent to Tasmania, then Van Diemen’s Land, as Lieutenant Governor in 1837. England was determined to find the fabled Northwest passage and Franklin was tapped to lead the 1845 expedition. It is not clear why as he ws 59 at the time, but it is likely that at least in part it was due to his wife’s influences, removing them both from the penal colony in the southern hemisphere and returning her to England. Sir John left England on May 19th, 1845, commanding both HMS Erebus and HMS Terror (of Sir James Clark Ross fame); the rest is history. A note later found on King William Island records his death on June 11th, 1847. His grave has not been found (though his boats have). The next 10 years were spent searching for the Lost Expedition, to a large degree at the insistence of and with financing from Lady Jane.
Sir Robert Scott-another young entrant into the Royal Navy, Scott joined up as a cadet at the age of 13, in 1881. This was no surprise as there existed a significant military tradition in his family. He progressed up the ranks, but financial urgencies arose after fiscal losses by his father, followed by the death of first his father, then his younger brother in 1898. It is likely that Scott, with no polar experience, volunteered to lead the Discovery expedition of 1901 at least to some degree as a result of familial financial pressures. What is less clear is why he was selected to head the entire expedition by Clement Markham, then president of the RGS. Despite his lack of expedition experience, Scott emerged from Discovery on top, having reached a new furthest south and discovered the Antarctic plateau. He was awarded the Commander of the Royal Victorian Order by King Edward VII, and many other medals were bestowed on him. The time between expeditions was not without controversy. Scott put down territorial claims to keep Shackleton off his turf during Shackleton’s upcoming Nimrod expedition, and there occurred a collision between the HMS Albemarle, under his command, and another vessel. Following Shackleton’s near miss of the South pole, Scott made clear his intentions with the Terra Nova expedition: get to the south pole for the honor of the English people. He put together a menagerie of transportation modes, including dog, pony, motorized vehicles, and man himself. Though one might praise him for redundancy, relying on a brand new transport method, motorized tracked vehicles, or having a person (Cecil Meares) choose his ponies though unqualified to do so, raises real questions about his planning. A review of his diary during his southern journey to the pole reveals continued perseveration over how these myriad transport methods would mesh. At a minimum, they contributed to significant logistic challenges, compared to Amundsen’s efficient use of dogs. Scott’s delayed planning style continued right up through a switch in the number of people who would accompany him to the pole, throwing into disarray logistical issues including shelter and rations. Volumes have been written about these issues, along with criticisms about his personality, his formality, rejection of indigenous survival methods, and more. Academic debates have ensued surrounding Scott’s order to send out a team on or about the first of March, 1912, the selection of men for that party, their inability to travel to Scott’s requested 82-82.5 degrees south to rendezvous with the team returning from the pole, and whether this would have resulted in the rescue of Scott and party. Regardless, it is now clear, and Scott has been given credit, that while he was not first to the pole, the expedition did return with significant scientific data gathered both from side journeys (e.g. the collecting of Emperor penguin eggs from Cape Crozier) and the trip south to the pole. On 24 or 25 March Scott recounts in his diary the reasons for the expeditions failures, principal among them the cold weather in his opinion (verified). He also cites his late start due to pony issues, the soft snow on Beardmore glacier, which reduced their pace, and Oates’ infirmed state which slowed them considerably. Scott’s death, 12.5 miles from One Ton depot, in company of his colleagues Bowers and Wilson, occurred on 29 March, 1912. His last entry was “For God’s sake, look after our people”. Scott will be remembered for carrying to the end, the first fossils from Antarctic, those of a seed fern, Glossopteris, proving that the continent had at one point in geologic history been warm and part of the early land mass of Gondwana. Amundsen can claim no such lasting contributions to science.
Edward Wilson-born in Cheltenham, England in 1872, he was a gifted artist as well as a physician and signed onto Scott’s Discovery expedition the year after passing his medical exams in 1900, as its junior surgeon, naturalist, and artist. Wilson became close to Scott during their ill conceived journey towards the pole, also accompanied by Shackleton. It is likely that this bond formed the basis for Wilson becoming Scott’s right hand man during the Terra Nova expedition. On this second and last expedition of Wilson’s, as chief scientist, he is perhaps best known for his winter journey along with Apsley Cherry-Garrard and Henry Bowers to Cape Crozier in search of Emperor penguin eggs. This journey almost resulted in the death of the three, and of course only Cherry-Garrard ultimately survived the Terra Nova expedition. Wilson survived to the end with Scott, following their belated arrival at the South pole, being found along with Bowers in their tent 12.5 miles from One Ton depot. When the three were discovered in November 1912 Scott had his arm across the body of Wilson, perhaps a final gesture of their friendship. Following his death, Wilson was awarded the Patron’s medal by the RGS. Wilson is known for his watercolors, especially those of Antarctic birds.
Sir Ernest Shackleton-close to a mythical figure in today’s times, Shackleton was in fact born an Irishman in Kilkea, County Kildare in 1874. However, the family returned to their English roots when he was 10, moving to London where his father could begin the practice of medicine. A mediocre student, Shackleton went to sea at the age of 16 and quickly moved up the ranks. It was a chance meeting during the Boer War and capitalization on the same that introduced him to the opportunity of polar exploration: an acquaintance with Cedric Longstaff, son of the primary financier for what would become Scott’s Discovery expedition. As a result, an introduced meeting with Sir Clements Markham, the man in charge of assembling the Discovery, occurred, and the rest is history. During Discovery, Shackleton, along with Wilson, and Scott, pushed on a grueling southern journey to a “new south” record, but Shackleton became ill with scurvy, additional respiratory symptoms (likely asthma), and possibly heart issues. Whether medically justified or by Scott’s design because of jealousy due to Shackleton’s popularity, it is unclear, Shackleton was sent home aboard the relief ship Morning after which animosities between him and Scott ensued further. Following his return home, Shackelton wedded his sweetheart for whom he longed while in Antarctica: Emily Dorman, on April 9th 1904. He had lobbied for and obtained the job as secretary of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, so off they moved to Edinburgh. Shackleton however, became restless in this position and ever the believer in his entrepreneurial abilities, moved on to a series of unsuccessful business attempts as well as a failed run at parliament. Despite these setbacks, along with the likelihood of extra-marital affairs, he was finally successful in arranging and financing his own Nimrod expedition, 1907-1909. It was on this expedition that he fell just short of reaching 90 degrees south by only 112 miles, reaching a new “furthest south”. Shackleton was smart enough to recognize that a push to the pole would not be successful and turned around despite the prize being so close. His record stood until Amundsen’s December 1911 conquest. It was also during Nimrod, and likely due to that attempt on the pole, that Shackleton developed a close friendship with Frank Wild, much as Scott had with Wilson; Wild was one of three colleagues on the Nimrod pole journey led by Shackleton. Back in England a hero, Shackleton continued to struggle in business ventures, relying on income from his polar lectures to support him and his family. He came close to involvement in Douglas Mawson’s Australasian expedition, but eventually awaited the results of Scott’s Terra Nova disaster, which also required coming to grips with Amundsen’s success. This outcome set him up for the idea of a trans-Antarctic expedition. The concept was further fueled by William Speirs Bruce’s inability to get funding for such an endeavor, and Germany’s Wilhelm Filchner’s failure in his 1911 expedition with the same prize in mind (actually for two parties to meet at the pole, having started from the Weddell Sea and the Ross shelf). Volumes have been written about Shackleton’s failed Endurance expedition, during which his leadership skills, concern for his men, reliance on Frank Wild to lead the remaining men awaiting at Elephant Island, and he and his colleagues’ legendary and miraculous completion of the “double”: their sail from Elephant to South Georgia and interior crossing of South Georgia to Stromness, arriving on 20 May 1916. Unlike his return from Nimrod, Shackleton’s arrival home following Endurance was muted due to the Great War. His alcohol consumption was increasing while his heart’s function was likely declining; it is not clear whether he suffered from a heart attack, the effects of alcohol on his heart, alcoholic cardiomyopathy, or perhaps a hidden congenital cardiac condition: an atrial septal defect (ASD). A posting to Russia for the remainder of the war set him up for yet another failed business venture. Two years after his discharge from the army, he was off again on what was to be his last expedition. What was originally to be an exploration of the Beaufort Sea to the north was switched to an ambiguously defined exploration of sub-Antarctic islands. Setting off in September, 1921, the Quest, with Frank Wild second in command, reached first Rio de Janeiro. It is believed that Shackleton at this point likely suffered a second myocardial infarction but refused care. The ship continued to South Georgia as did his alcohol consumption. In the early morning hours the day after their arrival, Shackleton drew his last breath; cause was attributed to an atheroma of his coronary arteries. This likely resulted in his final and fatal heart attack. How much his alcohol consumption and possible ASD (or other congenital condition) contributed will never be known. Of note, during the early 20th century an ASD would have been a presumptive diagnosis based on symptoms and the sound of a characteristic heart murmur. Though easily diagnosed now by an echocardiogram, at that time it would only have been able to be confirmed at death with an autopsy. If his heart suffered from the effects of alcohol and an ASD it could have contributed to his coughing and shortness of breath that have been reported; it is possible that he denied or or downplayed these symptoms which would have been from heart failure. If he indeed had asthma, exacerbated by tobacco use, that would have contributed to his episodic respiratory difficulties as well. Regardless of the contributing causes, and to his widow Emily’s credit, a decision was made to bury him on South Georgia at Grytviken rather than returning him home to England. It is interesting that in the early and mid-20th century Scott’s fame outshone that of Shackleton but for a variety of reasons (about which much has been written) the tide turned towards Shackleton’s popularity by the late 20th century. This was due in large part to the publishing of Endurance: Shackleton's Incredible Voyage by Alfred Lansing in the late 1950s along with many other books which followed. Today, articles have been written and training is available based on Shackleton’s leadership traits, a lasting legacy.
Huntford, Roland. Shackleton. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985
Frank Wild-a man so endeared to Shackleton that they now rest side by side in Grytviken, South Georgia cemetery. Born in 1873 in Yorkshire, Wild’s family moved considerably. Like Shackleton, he joined the Merchant Marines at the age of 16, hopping to the Royal Navy at the age of 26. Wild participated in the majority of the expeditions of the heroic era of exploration and was the only explorer to be part of five Antarctica expeditions. His first was Discovery with Scott. He then joined Shackleton’s Nimrod expedition during which they became closer on the journey to the pole. His next voyage was with Mawson aboard Aurora; he was in charge of the “western party”. Famously, he was the number two during Shackleton’s Endurance expedition and held down the fort with remaining crew at Elephant Island while Shackleton and colleagues set off in the James Caird in search of rescue. And he was with Shackleton at his end, aboard the Quest.. Wild took over the expedition upon Shackleton’s death and saw it to completion. After his expeditions, Wild settled in South Africa. He went through a series of jobs and married twice, finding happiness in his second marriage. Upon his death in 1939 he was buried in Braamfontein Cemetery, Johannesburg. In November 2011 his ashes were discovered, and subsequently found their way to his final resting place, along with the inscription Frank Wild 1873–1939, Shackleton's right-hand man. Wild was one of the few recipients of the Crown’s Polar medal with four bars (Ernest Joyce being the other). He also was awarded Commander status of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1920 and received the Patron’s medal by the RGS in 1924.
Butler, Angie. The Quest for Frank Wild. Warwick: Jackleberry Press, 2011.
Sir Vivian Fuchs-like Mawson, Fuchs was a geologist. Born on the Isle of Wight in 1908, it was during his education at St. John’s college, University of Cambridge that Fuchs’ interest in polar work was stirred, by a 1929 trip to Greenland led by James Wordie of Shackleton’s Endurance expedition. However, following completion of his studies, his time was diverted to field work in Africa which he leveraged to gain his PhD from Cambridge just before WWII in 1937. Fuchs participated in D-Day, an officer in the Second Army, and was fortunate to see the end of the war, discharged in 1946. His antarctic interest stems from a geologist position with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1947. After significant antarctic exploration, and moving up the ranks in the Survey, appointed as scientific director in 1950, he was chosen to lead the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1957-1958. This was the first attempt to cross Antarctica since Shackleton. Hillary, part of the expedition, laying supplies starting from Scott Base, beat him to the pole by 16 days. Nonetheless, Fuchs completed the 2158 mile journey, for which he was knighted in 1958. He went on to become the director of the Falkland Islands Survey until 1973. Honors included the Crown’s Polar medal in 1953 with a “bar” following the 57-58 expedition, and the RGS Patron’s medal in 1951. He was elected president of the society from 1982-1984. Fuchs was twice married and died in Cambridge in 1999.
Fuchs, Vivian. A Time to Speak. Shopshire, England: A Nelson Ltd, 1990.
Sir Wally Herbert-like Edward Wilson, Herbert was both an explorer and an artist. Born in 1934 in York, England, Herbert became known as a true explorer during his 72 year lifespan. He is perhaps best known for disputing Peary’s claim to the north pole, though no doubt he has a conflict of interest. That is because Herbert was the first to walk to the north pole, undisputed with sufficient supporting evidence, in April 1969. Herbert grew up overseas, the son of a military father. He got his first polar experience working for the Falklands Dependencies Survey in 1957, similar to Fuchs in the decade previous. One one trip he explored and sledged an amazing number of miles: 3000. Herbert moved on to exploring other parts of the antarctic, Greenland, and finally the arctic. He learned from the locals, embracing Inuit ways. His crowning glory was lead on the 1968 British Trans-Arctic Expedition, an epic 3,800 mile journey from Alaska to Spitsbergen, the longest axis of the Arctic ocean. His path led through the Pole of Inaccessibility. In order to make it to the North pole, Herbert and colleagues had to over-winter, finally crossing over the pole the following season. Peary and team arrived on the same date sixty years before that Peary claimed to have reach the North pole: April 6th. He was awarded the Polar Medal with bar and the RGS Founder’s Medal. Like many of his predecessors he was knighted. He continued his explorations after this feat, attempting to circumnavigate Greenland in 1979, but was unsuccessful. Regarding the Peary controversy, Herbert was engaged by National Geographic and on April 26th, 1985 he first laid eyes on Peary’s diary at the National Archives in Washington D.C. His assessment of Peary went downhill from there. His findings aside, we will never know who actually was the first to arrive at the North pole on foot, Herbert or Peary. And Herbert will be remembered as one of the great explorers of the second half of the 20th century.
Tim Jarvis-Tim is a modern day polar explorer born in 1966 in Manchester, England. As both an environmental scientist and polar explorer Javis is known for two amazing feats. The first was a re-creation of the historic Doug Mawson journey that ended in the death of Mawson’s two colleagues, in 2007. The second was Jarvis’ attempt and success at reliving Shackleton’s “double”: the sailing of the James Caird II from Elephant Island and the crossing of the interior of South Georgia to Stromness, in 2013. What is remarkable about both efforts is his commitment to period equipment and techniques as much as possible including limiting his caloric intake as Mawson was forced to do on his return trek . Though Jarvis had support crews for backup safety, they in no way detract from his successes. Today Jarvis works in the areas of climate change and global sustainability.
France
Jules Durmont d'Urville-the most celebrated French polar explorer, d’Urville participated in the early years of antarctic exploration. Born in the Normandy region, d’Urville went on to study at the Naval Academy where he was known as a “bookworm”. He went on to become a master of multiple languages and gained honor in one of his early voyages, aboard Chevrette in 1819. In the Aegean, he was instrumental in helping France acquire the Venus de Milo statue, now in the Louvre. A voyage to the Pacific in 1822, sailing on La Coquille, resulted in d’Urville returning to France with large collections of plants and insect. Already thinking of another expedition, he proposed to the French government further exploration of the Pacific. A proposed circumnavigation became further exploration of the far Pacific; this transpired between 1826-1829 aboard the newly named Astrolabe. The year 1837 turned d’Urville’s sights south, though not by his choosing. King Louie-Philippe forced his hand, requiring that his next expedition claim the magnetic South pole for France. He sailed again in September of that year bound for the Weddell Sea. He reached only Graham land, but was then forced north because of poor weather and ice. Due to deteriorating health and tragic news of his son’s death from cholera, he returned to Tasmania where he met up with John Franklin, then governor. He sailed south again in January 1840 and completed detailed coastal mapping of a number islands and the region that he named Adélie Land, in honor of his wife. A month later he was able to determine the approximate position of the magnetic south pole, returning eventually to France via New Zealand, a hero. He was awarded, in 1841, the Grande Médaille d’Or des Explorations. Unfortunately, d’Urville and his whole family died during a railway accident from Versailles in May, 1842. He is buried in Montparnasse on the left bank of Paris.
Jean-Baptiste Charcot-born to the west of Paris in 1867 to a medical family, Charcot’s father was a famous neurologist (Charcot-Marie Tooth disease). Charcot honed his sailing chops winning medals in the 1900 Olympics. The two French expeditions he led to the Antarctic, 1904-1907 and 1908-1911 have gotten a bit lost in the English domination of Antarctic exploration of the time (Scott and Shackleton). Nonetheless, Charcot first aboard Français, then Pourquoi-Pas? IV, explored the west coast of Graham Land, the Bellingshausen Sea, and the Amundsen Sea areas. After the Great War, and up until his death in 1936 he made several voyages to the north to Rockfall, eastern Greenland, and Svalbard. Unfortunately, he died when Pourquoi-Pas? IV was shipwrecked off the coast of Iceland on September 16th that year. Charcot, who loved Iceland, is remembered both in Reykjavík and at the mouth of Straumfjörður á Mýrum where his ship foundered. The former is a bas-relief on a monument in front of the Askja natural sciences building at the University of Iceland while the later is a small monument where the Pourquoi-Pas? IV met its demise.
Germany
Erich von Drygalski-born in what is now Kaliningrad, Russia in 1865, von Drygalski seemed destined to become a scientist. His doctoral thesis was about ice shields in Nordic regions. Following a stint as an academic in Berlin he led two expeditions north to Greenland. He is best known for his Gauss expedition of 1901, the value of which got a bit lost in the English dominance of this heroic age of polar exploration. Unfortunately, the ship became trapped in the ice for 14 months. Nonetheless, the expedition discovered Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and was the first to launch a balloon in Antarctica. He was not particularly regarded as a hero upon his return since Gauss only reached 66°2’ S, and at the time “furthest south” belonged to England: 82°17’. In the first 30 years of the 20th century he published voluminous scientific data from the expedition; this led to his being awarded the RGS Patron’s medal in 1933. von Drygalski continued as an academic in Munich up through WWII; he died in the American zone in Munich after the war in 1949.
Wilhelm Filchner-was leader of the second German Antarctic expedition, though Filchner seemed more interested in eastern travels. Indeed his antarctic involvement seems almost an anomaly. Filchner was born in Munich in 1877. Apparently, he showed considerable musical talent, but followed the family military tradition by enrolling in the Prussian Military Academy in Berlin at the age of 15. He achieved a measure fame in 1900 when he traversed the Pamir mountains in central Asia by horseback. He subsequently resumed studies in geophysics, geography, and surveying in Berlin, but the year 1903 found him reassigned to northeast Tibet and western China where he continued mapping and earth magnetic studies. There is a suggestion that this was a dangerous assignment, requiring him to hide his true identity, posing as a muslim priest. Filchner’s interest switched to the antarctic because of interest in a theory that it might be two land masses, partially split by an inlet or altogether separate. He proposed to cross from the Weddell sea to the the Ross Shelf using two ships (sounds familiar a la Shackleton) but was unable to obtain sufficient funds, narrowing the expedition to the Weddell Sea region. Misfortune beset the Deutschland first in Vahsel Bay, then by entrapment in ice for some eight months. Personnel issues ensued and the expedition disintegrated by the time it reached South Georgia; Filchner was called home. One author described him as "a bit stiff, something of a cold fish", which no doubt contributed to his inability to rectify his crew problems. Nonetheless, he is credited with several antarctic contributions including the Filchner-Ronnes Ice shelf. Filchner continued work in the late 1920s and mid-1930s in Asia. 1939 found him working in Nepal, but upon returning to India for health reasons he was interned by the British, suspicious of his motivations. After the war, and back in Germany, he wrote “his side of the story” from the expedition, though this was not published until 1985. He died in Zurich in 1957. In addition to his expedition publications he is known for several travel books, published on areas in central Asia.
Ireland
Tom Crean-one of the most under recognized heroes of antarctic exploration, Tom Crean was born on July 20th, 1877, in County Kerry Ireland. One of 10 children, Crean left home to join the Navy, the Royal Navy that is, having lied about his young age of 15. A “below deck” seaman, he advanced up the ranks, reaching petty officer second class aboard the torpedo vessel Ringarooma. This assignment found him in New Zealand, where unfortunately he tumbled back down to “able seaman” due to an unknown indiscretion. Ringarooma, assigned to assist Scott’s Discovery which was then portside in Lyttelton harbor, brought Crean close to the polar expedition and by a stroke of luck was able to sign onto adventure when a vacancy occurred due to a desertion. Once again, the rest is history. He first proved his worth during Discovery both in terms of his physical strength, stamina (sledge hauling) and his easy-going personality. He emerged petty officer first class. When Scott’s second expedition was in the works, Crean was an obvious choice. His first heroic act during Terra Nova was saving the lives of his compatriots Bowers and Wilson, risking his own life to go for help to rescue them off of an adrift ice flow. More heroic was his 35 mile solo slog from Corner Camp back to Hut Point in 18 hours, with minimal rations and no shelter in order to get help for Lashley and Edward Evans who were too weak to travel. Of course we will never know whether Scott and colleagues would have made it back from the pole if Crean had been selected as one of the five to press to 90 degrees south instead of Edgar Evans. In November 1912, Crean helped locate the lost party, who were found in their final resting places. Arriving back in England, he and the crew received the Polar Medal; Crean was also awarded the Albert Medal for Lifesaving (Evans). He was promoted to chief petty officer. His final act of heroism was during Shackleton’s Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition when he completed the “double”, the voyage from Elephant Island to South Georgia aboard the lifeboat James Caird and the subsequent interior land crossing to Stromness. Crean’s sheer physical stamina, his demeanor, and mindless singing during this trial were likely integral to its success. He, Shackleton, and Worsley made the 30 mile, 18 hour journey across unmapped snow, ice, and glacier covered mountains to find aid for themselves and their stranded colleagues they had left on the other side of South Georgia and at Elephant Island. He returned to England, obtained the rank of Warrant Officer, was awarded his third Polar Medal, and got married. Crean was offered a slot on Shackleton’s last journey, but declined, preferring instead to remain a family man. The Navy and he parted ways in 1920, and he opened the South Pole Inn, a pub in Annascaul, County Kerry on the Dingle peninsula. He and his family suffered greatly when their daughter Katie died at the age of four. Tom spent his remaining years mostly sitting quietly in the corner of the pub while his sister and his wife Nell ran the business. Quoted by Dónal Nolan in a 2003 interview, daughter Mary said about her father: …he hated the pub. “He had a free life once he came home. His dog, his pipe and the garden." Unfortunately, Tom died from sepsis following the delayed removal of a ruptured appendix, in 1938. Per daughter Eileen, quoted by Maeve Kennedy in The Guardian article about Crean in 2001: "He put his medals and his sword in a box ... and that was that. He was a very humble man". Of course, she and her sister Mary lived up the road in Tralee, in houses named what else: Discovery and Terra Nova. Eileen died in 2004, ironically at Bon Secours Hospital in Tralee where Crean had received care for his ruptured appendix. Mary passed in 2018 at the age of 99. However, the South Pole Inn lives on as a tribute to Tom Crean. He is survived by a number of grandchildren.
Smith, Michael. Tom Crean: An Unsung Hero. Seattle WA: Mountaineer Books, 2001.
Japan
Nobu Shirase-the unsung hero of Japan who unfortunately sailed in the shadow of Scott and Amundsen. This Lt. in the Japanese Navy, born in 1861 in Konoura Japan, had North Polar sights. But like Amundsen, he turned his sights south after Peary’s presumed success. His privately financed expedition, hoping to reach the South Pole, got a late start in 1910. This required a retreat to Sydney and an abandonment of his South Pole endeavors altogether. He was befriended by Edgeworth David and set out anew the next season. Though his discoveries have been primarily forgotten, he is credited with a dash across the Ross Ice Shelf, exploring unknown areas to 80°5'S. He also landed ashore at King Edward VII land, the first to do so from sea. The Kainan Maru explored the coastline to the east further than anyone else at the time. Despite his inability to convince the government to fund his expedition, Shirase became a hero upon his return. Unfortunately, like many polar explorers, Shirase had significant expedition debt and spent years giving lectures to pay it off. Living in relative poverty, he was fortunate to meet Amundsen in 1927 when the latter visited Japan. He was further recognized in 1933, but lived out WWII in solitude, dieing in 1946 just after the war had ended.
Norway
Carsten Borchgrevink-half English half Norwegian, Borchgrevink heralded in the heroic age of antarctic exploration, a precursor to Scott, Amundson, and Shackleton. Born in Christiania Norway (now Oslo) in 1864, Borchgrevink reportedly played with Amundson as a child. Following college and forestry training, wanderlust took him to Australia. An interest in Antarctica developed from reading and an opening offered from whaling yielded Carsten an opportunity to sign aboard the vessel Antarctic in 1894. Luck was with him as William Speirs Bruce who was slated to go on the expedition, was unable to get to Melbourne in time for the sailing, leaving the opening that Borchgrevink filled. The expedition, including Borchgrevink, claimed the first landing on the continent (disputed) and discovery of the first plant life (a lichen). Upon return Borchgrevink was ready for more. Initial attempts at fundraising were unsuccessful; he eventually found private backing through a newspaper magnate, Sir George Newnes. This incensed the British establishment who was bent on making Scott’s Discovery expedition a reality. Newnes stipulated that the expedition sail under under British flag though 26 of 29 crew were Norwegian. Still, Borchgrevink agreed to represent the British Empire and spread the union jack. The Southern Cross sailed from London on August 22, 1898. At Cape Adare he established the first Antarctic shore base; the expedition was first to overwinter, first to land on the Ross Ice Shelf via inlet, the “Bay of Whales”, and established a new “furthest south” on a trip inland on the ice barrier. Unfortunately, his expedition also claimed the first death on the continent: Nicolai Hansen. He returned to New Zealand in April 1900 and went on to London where his reception was tepid. This attitude continued as the country was prepping for Scott’s expedition. Borchgrevink retired to Oslo to live out his years, his reputation mixed, supported by Amundson yet scorned by Nansen. He was eventually recognized for his achievements at Cape Adare and awarded the RGS Patron’s Medal in 1930. He died four years later, though his hut remains at Cape Adare, curated by the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust.
Carl Anton Larsen-known for a number of firsts, Larsen was born in Østre Halsen, Norway in August 1860. He was exposed to the sea and whaling at a young age, and received formal training in navigation by the age of 18. Larsen ended up going to sea as a cook, the only position he could find. He advanced in positions so that by 21 he was a senior officer, but returned shore side to become a shipmaster. He had his first success captaining the Freden, a ship turned whaler, off the coast of Norway. His first ship to Antarctica was the Jason, 1892-1894, during which several discoveries were made, though unfortunately for the enterprise few whales were slain. He was the first to ski on the continent (Larsen ice shelf) and the first to return with fossils from Antarctica, found on Seymour Island. Larsen subsequently captained the ship Antarctic as part of the Swedish expedition, 1901-1904, a most unfortunate expedition that ended with the ship being crushed by ice and sinking. Luckily, the crew was rescued by an Argentine vessel. At the conclusion of that expedition Larsen opted to settle in South Georgia (the expedition had visited there in 1902) and opened the whaling station at Grytviken. He erected a Norwegian Lutheran church there in 1913, the site of Shackleton’s funeral service in 1922 before his burial in the church cemetary. Larsen rescinded his Norwegian citizenship in 1910, electing to become a subject of the British Crown and raised his family in South Georgia. He returned home briefly to Oslo, but following a failed business venture in a breeding farm, returned to South Georgia. In the early 1920s he formed a company to explore whaling in the Ross Sea, which was ultimately successful. Unfortunately he died in the midst of the 1924 season on December 8th at sea. A bust of Larsen resides in the church in Grytviken, now a tourist attraction.
Fridtjof Nansen-known for much more than just his polar accomplishments, Nansen was born in what is now Oslo in 1861. He took to skis at the age of two, then becoming a proficient skater. Not particularly drawn to academic pursuits at a young age, his outdoor and sporting pursuits took precedence . Nansen set both skating and skiing records in his late teens. Despite his earlier academic mediocrity, he was able to pass entrance exams and entered the Royal Frederick University in 1880 to study Zoology. In 1882 he was bitten by the polar bug during an arctic voyage, as part of his zoological studies. He subsequently left the university to take up a position as curator of the zoological department at the Bergen museum. He was actively involved in several areas of neuroscience research. During his time in Bergen, Nansen conceived of the idea of a Greenland crossing, noting the failed crossings of both Peary from the US and Nordenskiöld from Sweden. Smartly, he recruited indigenous Samis and other proficient outdoorsmen as part of his small party. All were experienced skiers. The initial route was scrapped due to an inability to reach shore at the desired location of Sermilik, forcing the party south. Eventually they were able to land and start their crossing at Umivik Bay, and were ultimately successful, arriving at Godthaab a month and a half later. Nansen was promptly informed that he had passed his doctoral defense of his thesis, which he had worked on while in Bergen. He returned to Norway a hero, and recognition of this success extended to England and the RGS. Nansen married in September 1889 after a brief engagement. A year after marriage he divulged the Arctic exploration plan he had been developing that would take advantage of the newly hypothesized polar drift theory: intentionally trapping a ship in ice and leveraging the drift to reach the North pole. Several polar veterans thought his plan to be folly, but Nansen managed to secure funds and shipped out with crew on the Fram in June 1893. The ice entrapment became a reality but the direction of drift was much more southerly than anticipated. Nansen boldly decided that if the ship was able to make 83 degrees north through drift, he would make a dash via sledge for the pole. After preparations, he and colleague Hjalmar Johansen made a shot for the pole; they departed Fram on March 14, 1895. The pair of travellers ended up short and concerned about supplies were forced to retreat. By luck, due to a delay from a walrus attack, they crossed paths with Frederick Jackson on an expedition to Franz Josef Land. This serendipitous encounter (thank you walrus) secured their return to safety and allowed them to make it back to Tromsø in a timely fashion, reunited with crew and ship. Despite their not reaching the pole, they were heralded upon return. Nansen hung up his exploration boots but continued to offer his wealth of knowledge to subsequent explorers, emphasizing the need to work with, rather than fight the extreme environment. As importantly, Nansen’s fame opened the door for subsequent achievements: diplomacy, politics, and humanitarian endeavors. He was instrumental in convincing Prince Charles of Denmark to become the first monarch of Norway. Upon independence, Nansen was sent to London as Norway’s minister. Unfortunately, en route home from London his wife died, in December 1905. He continued his academic pursuits, and following WWI became involved in the newly formed League of Nations, eventually leading its efforts in prisoner of war repatriations. Subsequently, he became involved in the resettlement of refugees from the Russian revolution, while in the post of High Commissioner for Refugees for the League. Similar work continued after the Greco-Turkish war and the Armenian genocide at the hands of the Ottoman Empire. His refugee work earned Nansen the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922. Nansen remarried in 1919, then in the early 20s became involved reluctantly in Norwegian domestic politics. While on a skiing holiday in 1930 he became ill, and following his return to Oslo suffered a heart attack and died on May 13th. Along with Nansen’s numerous honors and multiple geographic locations bearing his name on planet earth, he has a crater on both the moon and Mars named in his honor. He will be remembered for his multiple polar exploration innovations (the Nansen sledge and cooker, and pioneering methods for optimizing clothing for polar climates), as one of the fathers of the discipline of Neuroscience, and for his humanitarian contributions. Arguably, of all the individuals who grace this page, it is likely Nansen who contributed the most to so many broad areas of society: exploration, diplomacy, science, humanity and more.
Roald Amundsen-see above
Russia
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen-born in 1778 on an island off the coast of what is now Estonia, Bellingshausen is known as one of the early polar explorers. Joining the Imperial Russian Navy as a cadet at the tender age of 10, he graduated from the Kronstadt Naval Academy at 18. He first served in the Baltic, rising up through the ranks quickly. In his 20s he participated in the first Russian global circumnavigation, 1803-1806. Following this, Bellingshausen had multiple commands, leading up to his selection to command the first Russian Antarctic Expedition. His two ships departed Kronstadt in June 1819 and after a stopover in England, left Plymouth in September. The expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle on January 26th, 1820 (first crossing since Cook) and sighted land on January 27th. Bellingshausen’s expedition is now generally credited with the first to sight the mainland, despite claims by Bransfield (January 30th) and Nathaniel Palmer (on November 17th) of the same year. They circumnavigated the continent twice, discovering and naming multiple islands. They returned home in August 1821. Following the expedition, Bellingshausen was promoted to flag rank, and eventually attained the rank of vice admiral. He was involved in additional military campaigns before settling in as governor of the naval base at Kronstadt in 1839. He died in 1852, but is remembered by a monument in the Summer Garden in Kronstadt.
Scotland
William Speirs Bruce-along with Douglas Mawson, and in contrast to many other antarctic explorers “doing a little science on the side” in the early part of the 20th century, Bruce’s focus was ALL science. Though London born in 1867 and schooled in England, Bruce made his way to Scotland during a natural science course at the Scotland Marine Station on the Firth of Forth. He was bitten by the Scotland bug and transferred to the medical school in Edinburgh. However, his interest in oceanography continued to grow, and he jumped at the chance to conduct studies on a whaling expedition out of Dundee in September 1892, to Antarctica. Following the expedition, Bruce obtained a post at the Ben Nevis meteorological observatory, however in 1896 he once again headed for polar lands, this time north to join Frederick Jackson’s expedition to Franz Josef Land in the Arctic; over 700 specimens were collected. By chance, the expedition encountered (and rescued) Nansen who was returning from his North pole attempt. Following the expedition, Bruce returned to Ben Nevis, only to soon leave again to participate in several arctic expeditions, including one sponsored by Prince Albert of Monaco. Returning, he married in 1901 and settled in Edinburgh to raise his family. He named his house “Antarctica”. During this time, Bruce made a play to be selected for Scott’s Discovery expedition. However, poor politicking with Sir Clement Markham and the proposal that Bruce lead a second ship on a side expedition was a non-starter. Bruce made the decision to fund his own expedition and the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition was born. Scotia left Troon in November 1902 with a largely Scottish scientific team. The ship was forced to over winter at Laurie Island in the South Shetlands, though scientific studies continued. A permanent meteorological station was established there. The following season Scotia headed south again, to the Weddell Sea, and Coats Land was discovered and named. Additional plant and animal specimens were collected, along with copious hydrographic, meteorological and magnetic observations. In March 1904 the ship and crew headed back to Scotland via Cape Town. Reception in England was lukewarm. Back in Edinburgh Bruce founded the Scottish Oceanographic Laboratory to house all of his collections. Bruce sought another expedition to further his polar studies, but Markam’s influence held and he was unable to finance it. Instead, he threw his weight and funding into Shackleton’s Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. For his scientific work Bruce was awarded the Scottish Geographic Societies “Gold Medal” in 1904, and the RGS Patron’s Medal in 1912. He also receive the American Geographic Society’s Livingstone Medal in 1920. He was denied the Polar Medal by the Crown, a slight which has not been rectified as of today. During the war, he suffered a failed business venture, finally returning to a job with the Admiralty. Bruce’s health declined after the war and he died in October 1921. It is interesting to reflect on Bruce’s difficulties in navigating the competitive, political world of polar exploration around the turn of the century into the first decade. Likely, there were three primary reasons for his inability to rise to the top despite his intelligence and strong interest in polar science. First, he promoted Scottish nationalism, anathema to England. Second, he was interested in science in its purest form, not as a sideshow to the achievement of an explorers goal that could be more easily sold to the public and used as an end point for fundraising. Third, and most unfortunate was Bruce’s difficult personality. Nonetheless, he is now recognized as a leading contributor to early scientific discoveries in Antarctica.
John Rae-born in the Orkneys in 1813, Rae became a doctor after studying medicine in Edinburgh. He found his way to Ontario as a surgeon with the Hudson Bay Company and rapidly learned the ways of the land. Rae travelled much of the Canadian north starting in 1844, mapping, exploring, and learning the ways of the Inuits. One goal was to explore from Hudson Bay westward, reaching Thomas Simpson’s previous furthest east point, established in 1839. By 1847 Rae had come within 100 miles of that point. He participated in multiple subsequent journeys along the Arctic coast, from 1848-1851; areas included the Mackenzie to Coppermine River, and the southern coastal strip of Victoria Island. He was second in command of the Richardson-Rae expedition, charged with searching overland for Franklin’s lost expedition. During this time Rae traveled roughly 2,400 miles, overland and by river. He newly mapped 630 miles of coastline, demonstrating that Wollaston Land and Victoria Land are connected as one: Victoria Island. During the summer of 1851 on the shore of Parker Bay on Victoria Island he came across the Franklin clues. The first was a piece of wood likely part of a flagstaff. There were remnants of a line nailed to the wood with two tacks made of copper. Though not proof of Franklin, two findings bore the unmistakable sign of British property: the broad arrow mark on the tacks and a red thread running through the line. A second piece of wood, likely from a ship, was found about half a mile away. For his explorations and this discovery, Rae was awarded the Founder’s Medal by the RGS in 1852. Back in the Arctic, on his 1853-1854 travels Rae discovered the missing link to the Northwest passage: that King William land is not a peninsula, but rather an island, allowing one to sail south through James Ross Strait and Rae Strait (east side of King William), then south of the island between it and the mainland, and finally to continue westward through Storis Passage into Queen Maud Gulf. In the spring of 1854, thanks to a disgruntled interpreter, William Ouligbuck, Rae encountered a local hunter the morning of April 21st wearing a part of the Royal Navy uniform around his head: a gold cap band. When queried where he had obtained it from he said “from where the dead white men were…” He went on to say the location was 10-12 days west, though he had not been there. From Innookpoozheejook, he obtained information about Franklin’s expedition, specifically that in the spring of 1852 Inuits had encountered a group of men on the verge of starvation and that later that spring found them dead with evidence of cannibalism; many relics were spread around the site which came to be known as Starvation Cove. He purchased from the Inuits, who had collected the relics presumed from Franklin’s expedition, a silver plate engraved with "Sir John Franklin, K.O.H.” on the back, the gold cap band, engraved spoons, coins, a watch case and more. He also obtained Franklin’s Hanoverian order of knighthood. Rae filed his report with the Admiralty, which unfortunately was released publicly in The Times, and was met with scorn. Lady Franklin recruited Charles Dickens and his publication Household Words to help refute the claim of cannibalism. England, or at least Lady Franklin and her followers, found it absurd that Franklin’s crew could have indulged in such behavior even as a last resort, and they derided both Rae and the source of the knowledge: the indigenous Inuit. Rae was ruined. However, given Rae’s proof of information, and the relics he had bought as proof of his discovery, he received the reward, 10,000 pounds in 1856,, for information about the expedition. Ever the explorer, Rae took the money and in 1857 built a ship, the Iceberg, for purposes of polar exploration. Unfortunately, the ship sank on its first commercial sailing from Cleveland, Ohio to Kingston, Ontario. Living in Hamilton, Ontario at the time, Rae founded the Hamilton Association for the Advancement of Literature, Science and Art, a cultural organization active today. He married Kate Thompsen at the age of 47, in 1860. Between 1860 and 1864 he worked in Greenland, Iceland, and western Canada to bring the telegraph from England to parts of Canada. At 71 he was exploring options for running the telegraph from the US to Russia, again working for the Hudson Bay Company. He subsequently returned to near Kirkwall in the Orkneys, before moving to London in his final years. Finally, in 1893, Rae passed from a ruptured aneurysm. His wife brought him home to Orkney for burial at St. Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall. Rae, known for his embrace of indigenous ways is now recognized as a major contributor to both Arctic knowledge and geography as well as his contributions to the unravelling of the fate of Franklin’s lost expedition.
United States
Nathaniel Palmer-born into a prominent Stonington CT family in 1799, Palmer went to sea at the age of 14. This comes as no surprise as he was born into two generations of ship builders. At 18 he skippered the Galena, participating in coastal trade. His interest in hunting seals turned him south at the age of 20 aboard the vessel Hersilia, on which he served as second mate. He gained stature by secretly plotting the course of a competitor, the Espirito Santo to the South Shetlands, where both ships filled their hulls with seals. A year later, Palmer was given command of the Hero, a 47’ sloop with a total complement of five, as part of a seven ship sealing expedition financed by Stonington’s Captain Edmund Fanning. This was under the overall command of Benjamin Pendleton, with the expedition based out of Deception Island, South Shetlands. They were the first Americans to cross the Antarctic Circle. The Shetland sealing grounds had been decimated resulting in the need to head further south in search of bounty. As one of two sloops (the other ships being brigs) the Hero was to be a “scout”, searching for new areas to hunt. It is during one of these trips that Palmer encountered Antarctica. He and his crew were the first Americans to sight the Antarctic peninsula on November 17th, 1820, behind Bellingshausen and Bransfield who had done so in January of that year. Of note, in February, 1821 three months after the sighting, Palmer had a chance encounter with Bellinghausen off the South Shetlands, Bellinghausen’s log records their meeting and he named the Antarctic peninsula “Palmer Land”, obviously impressed with the feat of Palmer and his small vessel. The diminutive Hero had travelled 10,000 miles from Stonington. Palmer continued to work the area, charting about 200 miles of the peninsula’s western coast during the remaining portion of the expedition before returning to Stonington. In 1821 on another voyage with with Captain George Powell Palmer discovered the South Orkneys aboard the sloop James Monroe. In 1826 Palmer married Elizabeth Babcock in Stonington, three years before his last Antarctic voyage in 1829. He went on to skipper multiple vessels involved in trade with the northern coast of South America and transported troops involved in the war for independence of South American countries, for Simon Bolivar. He was then instrumental in the development of packet ships, starting the “Dramatic Line” which he himself captained. He went on to design larger clipper ships in the 1840s, which reigned supreme in the mid-19th century. In 1836 he purchased a large home in Stonington and eventually retired there as the “age of sail” was starting to close in during the last half of the 19th century. Palmer had no children, but took to his nieces and nephews, especially fond of Nathaniel Palmer II. Following the death of his wife, Palmer sailed with the younger Palmer to China for treatment of the younger Palmer’s tuberculosis. Unfortunately, his nephew died at sea upon the return and Palmer never recovered, dieing a month later in San Francisco, in June 1877.
Mercator Cooper-born in Southampton on Long Island, NY in 1803, Cooper went to sea in his 20s on a whaling expedition. He married Maria Green at the age of 27 and first captained a whaling ship at the age of 29, in 1832. Cooper is perhaps best known for his visit to isolationist Japan; when captaining the Manhattan on a whaling voyage out of Sag Harbor to the Pacific the ship came upon shipwrecked Japanese in 1845 and returned them to Tokyo. On the Japanese shipwreck Cooper discovered and kept a detailed map charting the islands of Japan. His polar connection is from the 1850s; he left Sag Harbor in 1851 captaining the Levant on a whaling and sealing expedition. Cooper reached the area of the Ross Ice Shelf and on January 26th, 1853 he landed a boat on the ice shelf, an area now known as Oates Coast. Cooper is credited for being the first human to set foot on the mainland of Antarctica. He lived another 19 years, passing in 1872 while in Columbia. Cooper’s papers, log book, and the Japanese navigation map all reside at the New Bedford Whaling Museum in New Bedford MA.
Henry Grinnell-Born in New Bedford, MA in 1799, the Grinnell family including Henry became quite successful in the shipping business. Upon retirement, Grinnell gained Franklin expedition fame as the American who sponsored at least two Franklin search expeditions at the request of Lady Jane Franklin whom he had befriended in 1850. Subsequently, Grinnell promoted the restoration of the Resolute after the “ghost ship” was found and returned from the Arctic to New Bedford. The restoration and refitting, authorized by Congress at the urging of Grinnell resulted in the Resolute’s gifting back to England, though she was later salvaged per Queen Victoria. At the queen’s request, three desks were made from its timbers: the Resolute desk (white house bound) and a smaller secretary desk, the Grinnell desk (along with a smaller desk for the queen). It was so named because the desk was presented om 1880 to Grinnell’s widow Sarah; Henry had died in 1874. The desk now resides in the New Bedford Whaling Museum. Grinnell is also known for having financed other polar expeditions including those of Charles Francis Hall.
Charles Francis Hall-believed to have been born in Rochester NH in 1821, Hall became interested in Arctic exploration at a relatively late age, around 35, when he became intrigued by Franklin’s fate. His first expedition out of New Bedford aboard the George Henry yielded a book from which he gained some degree of notoriety: Arctic Researches and Life Among the Esquimaux. In July 1864, he led his second expedition aboard the whaler Monticello. The party explored King William Island and was successful in finding signs of Franklin. Hall became disenchanted with “the hunt” after hearing local Inuit stories surrounding the fates of Franklin and his crew. His signature expedition was an attempt at the North pole aboard USS Polaris, an exploit sanctioned and funded by Congress to the tune of $50,000. The expedition sailed from New York in June 1871 and personnel issues beset the ship immediately, chief among them the disagreements between Hall and chief scientist Emil Bessels. Disagreements continued, though the ship did reach a “furthest north”: 82° 29′ N on September 2nd. Continued infighting about whether to proceed further north transpired, with the ship eventually “wintering up” at Thank God Harbor in Greenland. Before and shortly after leaving on a sledging operation to push even further north, on October 10th, Hall gave orders to Bessels and the ship’s master Sydney Buddington; apparently they were not well received. Upon return to the ship 14 days later, Hall fell ill after drinking coffee. He accused Bessels of poisoning him. He initially improved, but Bessels, as ship’s surgeon, resumed care over Hall, who succumbed on November 8th and was buried on shore. The expedition continued though eventually required rescue; they returned home through Scotland in the summer of 1873. An investigation ensued and all crew were cleared; it was declared that Hall died of “natural causes” However, modern day analyses were undertaken by Chauncey Loomis while writing Hall’s biography. He discovered, after exhuming Hall’s body and analyzing tissue samples, that there were high levels of arsenic. What is unclear is whether Hall had overdosed on the arsenic himself (arsenic was considered a medicinal at the time), had been poisoned by Bessels or others, or if he had been murdered by another means. What is clear is that Hall and Bessels were enamored by the same woman, Vinnie Ream, while in New York during expedition preparations. One’s own conclusions may be drawn.
George De Long-De Long was born in 1844 in NYC NY. He joined the Navy at the age of 19, attending the US Naval academy. When 28, he shipped aboard a mission to try and rescue Hall and the Polaris. It was on this voyage that, to quote his wife Emma: “The polar virus was in his blood and would not let him rest”. Subsequently De Long was referred by Henry Grinnell to James Gordon Bennett, who agreed to fund a North pole expedition. The goal was to approach the pole from the Bering Strait, hoping to capitalize on the theory of the time, that a temperate current flowed into the polar sea, and to chart the previously unexplored Wrangel’s Land along the way. After prolonged negotiations, De Long purchased from England a decommissioned gunboat, the Pandora; now with Naval authority he supervised the overhaul and refitting of the vessel, and renamed her Jeanette. They sailed in July of 1879. Details of the voyage are covered under Expeditions; after Jeanette became trapped in the ice and sunk, De Long organized a heroic attempt to reach the Siberian mainland. In small boats, the parties made their way south, initially together but then becoming separated by storm. De Long’s group, separated, was able to get to land however poor health and limited food supplies led to weakness and the eventual death of several in his party. De Long himself died October 30th or 31st, 1881 at the young age of 37. A few surviving members made it to civilization, rescue, and rendezvous with other members of the crew. Along with De Long’s death came the end of belief in the “open polar sea” theory, though the later discovery of Jeanette off of Greenland proved the east to west current flow and provided the basis for Nansen’s Fram expedition.
Frederick Cook-another doctor explorer, Cook was born in Delaware, New York. Educated at Columbia, then NYU medical school, he graduated in 1890 presumably with a bright future given his new credentials. His first polar calling was as a surgeon, during Peary’s 1891-1892 Arctic expedition. This was followed up with Cook serving as surgeon aboard Belgica, 1897-1899; on this Belgian Antarctic expedition he is generally credited with having saved much of the crew along with Adrien de Gerlache, finally convincing them that they needed to eat seal meat to treat and stave off further advances of scurvy amongst them. It was on this voyage that he and Amundson took over command when Gerlache became too ill to captain the expedition. Cook’s reputation, or at least penchant for truth and honesty seems to have declined during this sailing. On the way south the expedition stopped at Tierra del Fuego and Cook befriended the Rev. Thomas Bridges, who had worked among and compiled a 30,000 word dictionary of the Yahgan peoples. The documents were “borrowed” by and subsequently submitted by Cook as his own work, published unknowingly by the Belgica Commission. This plagiarism was subsequently exposed by Charles Townsend in 1910. Cook went on to “fake” the first ascent of Mt. Denali in Alaska, in 1906. His chicanery likely reached its pinnacle when on April 21st, 1908 he supposedly reached the North pole. While no one disputes his 14 month travels across the Canadian arctic, it is thought unlikely that he actually achieved the “first to the pole” as he asserted by telegraph upon his arrival in Lerwick, Shetland on September 1, 1909. No surprise that Robert Peary was one of the most vocal dissidents attempting to discredit Cook; he was bent on receiving credit for that achievement from his own expedition of 1909. In fact, both Cook’s “photographs of the pole” and accounts from his Inuit guides placed him no where near 90 degrees north, and his claim generally fell by the wayside by WWI with Peary the victor. The result: Cook was expelled from both the Arctic and Explorer’s Club. He continued his dishonesty into the 1920s, involved in several shady business dealings which led ultimately to him landing in prison for fraud, from 1923 to 1930. Why Cook was pardoned by FDR in 1940, shortly before his death from a cerebral hemorrhage on August 5th, is unclear. Despite his shortcomings, Cook can be remembered for his Belgica heroics; he also receives praise for his treatment of indigenous peoples.
Richard Byrd-few polar explorers lived a life as complete as Byrd’s. In addition to his arctic flight and five antarctic expeditions, he participated in both world wars, rising to the rank of Rear Admiral. Born into a prominent Virginia family in 1888, Byrd ended up at the Naval Academy at the age of 20 and following graduation had several assignments. During this time he married Marie Donaldson Ames, in 1915. He was discharged from the Navy in 1916 due to an injury, posted to Rhode Island, then recalled to active duty for the war effort. First, at the Office of Naval Operations, he subsequently went to aviation school in the fall of 1917, ending up commanding the Naval Air Station in Halifax, Nova Scotia, from July 1918 until the end of the war in November of that year. Following the war, Byrd volunteered for but did not fly in the first transatlantic flight in 1919; in 1921 he narrowly escaped death from the dirigible ZR-2 disaster when he missed its take off due to a train delay. Byrd’s polar exposure occurred in 1925 when he supported the aviation portions of an arctic expedition by Don MacMillen. Floyd Bennett, whom he befriended on that expedition would pilot their Fokker F.VIIa/3m in an attempt at the North pole in 1926. Leaving from Spitsbergen on May 9th, they claimed to have reached the pole, and returned heros. The National Geographic Society awarded Byrd the Hubbard Medal. President Calvin Coolidge presented him and pilot Floyd Bennett the Medal of Honor. Subsequent analysis of both air speed and Byrd’s erased sextant readings (though still legible n his 1996 published logs) make his claim doubtful. 1927 found Byrd aboard a Fokker Trimotor transatlantic flight from Long Island to Paris, though the crew was forced to crash land on a beach in Normandy. Again, he returned a hero. His first antarctic expedition was in 1928 with a goal of flying to the South pole. This involved three planes and two ships, setting up “Little America” base on the Ross Ice Shelf. Various scientific observations were made during the first year, and Byrd was successful in the second year of the expedition. On November 28th, 1929, along with three others, Byrd flew a Fort Trimotor to 90 degrees south, barely gaining sufficient altitude to make it over the polar plateau. Upon return he was promoted to Rear Admiral and awarded the Gold Medal by the American Geographical Society. Between Byrd’s first and second expedition to the antarctic he travelled in high circles, befriending and politicking with FDR, Henry and Edsel Ford, John D. Rockefeller, and others. He narrowly escaped death on his second antarctic expedition of 1934 when he suffered carbon monoxide poisoning. Just before the America’s entry into WWII Byrd led his third antarctic expedition for the purposes of charting the coastline between 72 degrees W. and 148 degrees W. It was an extravaganza, sponsored by the government, with 125 participants. A M2A2 tank was taken on the expedition as was the new antarctic Snow Cruiser; both machines failed at their duties. Byrd was recalled to the states in March of 1940 and when the US entered the war he was recalled to active duty. He served first as an advisor to the Chief of Naval Operations but was then posted to the Pacific where he served for the duration of the war. He was on hand when the Japanese surrendered in September 1945 at Tokyo Bay. Byrd participated in two subsequent antarctic expeditions: Operation High Jump, 1946-1947 and Operation Deep Freeze, 1955-1956. The former was a huge naval operation involving 4,000 personnel and multiple naval ships including one aircraft carrier. Multiple planes were involved as well. Much of Antarctica was surveyed during the expedition including the coastline from 150 degrees E. to the prime meridian. The later expedition helped establish permanent US bases at McMurdo Sound, the Bay of Whales, and the South pole. His physical presence in Antarctica during this final expedition was brief, and he died a year later in Boston, on March 11, 1957. Byrd’s too numerous to count medals and honors include the “Byrd” lunar crater. His papers and expedition records reside at Ohio State University’s Byrd Polar Research Center.
Robert Peary-generally recognized as an American polar icon, Peary was born in Pennsylvania in 1856. His father’s death at the age of three caused the family to move to Portland, Maine where he attended high school and was often the butt of jokes from his classmates. This may have been due in part to the feminine nature in which his mother tried to raise him. He attended college up the road in Brunswick at Bowdoin (his mother accompanied him), majoring in civil engineering and settled after graduation in Freyberg in the western part of Maine, just over the border from New Hampshire, 1878-1879. After moving to Washington to take a job as a draftsman, Peary saw himself as wanting/needing greater recognition in life. In an attempt to elevate his standing in life, Peary jumped at a surveying opportunity in Nicaragua, helping to build a canal there. He applied for and was successful at obtaining a US Navy commission in 1881, and was now on his way or so he thought. While waiting for the treaty with Nicaragua to be signed, Perry spent time working at the US Naval Station in Key West FL. Finally, in 1884 he shipped off to Nicaragua. What caused Peary to become interested in the Arctic, in 1885, is unclear. It may have been stimulated from a chance encounter with an article he read in a bookstore when back in Washington, having to do with Greenland ice. Whatever the tipping point, his first endeavor with polar climates was an unsuccessful attempt to cross Greenland in 1886 while on leave from the Navy. Back in service in 1887 he was again being posted to Nicaragua. However, this was not before a chance meeting with the man who would help him achieve fame: 21 year old Matthew Henson (above). He met Henson, an African-American working as a clerk in a hat shop, in Washington D.C, and was impressed with his previous seafaring experience. Henson was hired by Peary as his personal valet for Nicaragua. Peary married Josephine Diebitsch in 1888 and the couple moved to Philadelphia, accompanied by Peary’s mother (who had joined the newlyweds on their honeymoon). In 1891 Peary was able to launch his second Greenland expedition though he broke his leg while aboard SS Kite en route. This required convalescence for several months during which Peary and his wife Josephine (who accompanied the expedition) learned the Inuit ways of living in the Arctic. He subsequently trekked across northern Greenland, arriving at Independence Fjord, then returning to Red Cliff for a total of 1,250 miles. Peary’s erroneous claims seem to have started during his 1898-1902 expedition to the Arctic. During this time he claimed to have discovered Alex Helburg Island though it was credited to Otto Sverdrup the Norwegian. Subsequently, on his 1905-1906 expedition, he seems to have fudged his “furthest north” claim, with a missing page from his diary. He also claimed discovery of a new island sighted from Ellesmere: Crocker Land. Not only did his diary state “no land sighted”; this resulted in a disastrous expedition whose goal was to prove (or not) the existence of Crocker Land in 1913. Supporters of Peary’s claims thought proof of Crocker Land would validate Peary’s claim to the pole and discredit Cook, who claimed there was no such land. In this, Cook scored a rare point of honesty; Crocker Land was make believe. Regardless, Peary was honored in 1906 by the National Geographic Society, awarding him the Hubbard Medal. It was presented on December 15th at their banquet at the New Willard Hotel in Washington D.C. by President Roosevelt. Of note, Cook was honored for his McKinley “ascent” just before Peary received his medal. NGS clearly got it wrong that night, celebrating two achievements neither of which actually occurred. And Matthew Henson, at his side faithfully for this and subsequent explorations, received no such recognition. Peary’s final push to the pole, and ultimate claim to fame got under way in July 1908. Aboard the Roosevelt, Peary and team made their way to the northeastern tip of Ellesmere Island, where they prepared for the pole push from Cape Sheridan. The polar party left Sheridan on February 28th, 1909. From the party’s camp on April 1st, Peary mandated that only he, Henson, and his Inuit guides would progress to the pole, Peary being pulled atop a sledge due to his inability to walk. On the sixth they were certainly near the pole, and Henson claimed to have actually arrived first, later going back to retrieve Peary. No surprise that Peary was incensed with not being the first to arrive (if they had arrived at all). Upon return, Peary found he had been upstaged by Cook (later discredited); between that and Henson having preceded him, Peary was in a state. Despite these negatives, and a call by some in Congress to have his claim examined, Peary came out a winner. He was promoted to Captain in the Navy and ultimately Rear Admiral. He was twice president of the Explorer’s Club. The National Geographic Society and Congress credited him with the discovery of the North pole. Many other honors were bestowed upon him, including the Gold medal from the RGS in 1910. Despite these honors, Peary is generally not remembered as a nice man, nor can he be given any praise for his treatment of the indigenous people encountered during his expedition. Controversy over his North pole claim, and his treatment of the Inuits he brought back to the American Museum of Natural History are the primary thorns in his side (not to mention his treatment of Hanson). If he did not make the pole, it is debated whether the Peary was aware of this and covered it up, or if it was an “honest mistake” attributed to poor navigation skills. His journals were kept under lock and key until 1986. Analysis of his travel speeds suggest that he would have had difficulty reaching the pole. Wally Herbert, commissioned by the National Geographic Society to review Peary’s claim, determined that he had falsified his records. However, Herbert cannot be considered objective; Peary’s failure elevates Herbert to “first to the pole” on foot. In 1989 the National Geographic Society said “case closed” with Peary as the victor. Other recent analysis and travels (Tom Avery, 2005) suggest that Peary was successful, though his conclusions have been called into question. Bottom line, we will never know with certainty who was first. And Peary was certainly close, whether at 90 degrees or just shy. Following his retirement from the Navy in 1910, Perry was instrumental in promoting the use of aviation during WWI, and subsequently promoted the use of airmail by the postal service. He died in Washington D.C. in 1920, and is buried in Arlington Cemetery. Hanson, ever faithful, was interred and buried next to him in 1988.
Matthew Henson-see above
Ralph Plaisted-one of a few “modern day” explorers Plaisted hailed from Minnesota and grew up on winter, born in 1927. A high school dropout, he became a successful insurance agent. He became enamored with Snowmobiles when they first arrived on the scene in the 1960s, using them for hunting in the winter. In April, 1967, following an offhand dare that originated in the Pickwick Pub in Duluth MN between Plaisted and physician Art Aufderheide, Plaisted and colleagues made an attempt for the pole overland by Snowmobile, leaving from Ellesmere Island. Their first effort failed, during which they reached only 83° 20' N. The next year they tried again, leaving on March 9th, 1968 from a small island off the coast of the larger Ellesmere. The goal for Plaisted, his five colleagues, and the support of the Canadian company Bombardier: 425 miles by Ski-doo Snowmobile to 90 degrees N. Ironically, this was near to where Peary had left for the pole. Though the team accepted food drops from the air, they navigated by sextant and travelled by Snowmobile to reach the pole successfully (and verified by the Air Force) on April 20th. To some, this might seem a “walk in the park”, but navigating heavy machinery through and around ice obstacles and an ever melting surface was both nerve racking and emotionally draining. This was the first completely verified successful run to the North pole, Cook and Peary’s claims aside. Plaisted died in 2008; a sign in his birthplace of Bruno MN marks his feat.
Will Steger-this modern day explorer hailed from Richfield MN. At the ripe old explorer age of 44, he managed the first successful dogsled journey to the North Pole that was not supplied by air. Two years later he sledded 1,600 miles from the northern to the southern tip of Greenland, again unsupported. A year later: the first trans-Antarctic expedition by dogsled, 3471 miles. Lastly, in 1995, he traversed by dogsled the Arctic Ocean, from Russia to Ellesmere Island, Canada, a truly remarkable feat. He was the fourth person to reach both poles. He has continued his remarkable career embracing environmental concerns and lecturing on this vital topic. For his exploits and contributions, the National Geographic Society awarded Steger its most prestigious medal: the John Oliver La Gorce Medal.
New Zealand
Sir Edmund Hillary-see above